Executive Summary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Executive Summary - Research Paper Example Sonic healthcare shows an EV/EBITDA ratio of 9.86 for the next 12 months. This is higher than the median of its peer group: 8.31. The company valuation of sonic healthcare according to these metrics is above the market valuation of its peer group† (Sonic Healthcare market valuation multiples (AU000000SHL7 - ticker: SHL), 2010). Sonic healthcare is solely dedicated to diagnostic services primarily in the field of pathology and recently in the field of radiology. With the aim of becoming the largest diagnostic company in the world Sonic Healthcare has enlarged its operations to around seven other big countries other than Australia. . Problem: â€Å"Sonic Healthcare Ltd (ASX:SHL) has reported a 13 per cent drop in its first half net profit, and advised that full year profit is expected to fall at the lower end of its earlier guidance range† (Sonic Healthcare H1 profit drops, 2011). Owing to the regulatory issues in Australian pathology and the impacts of the recent severe w eather the expected profit of Sonic Healthcare for the 2011 financial year is reported to rest at 5 to 15 percent range. Solution: To solve the problems faced by Sonic Healthcare an amalgamation team has been set up as part of broader rationalization.

War is an Addiction Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

War is an Addiction - Research Paper Example War is seen amongst the scholars, researchers and philosophers as means of destroying involving parties in a manner, that they would not be able to question the authority of the winning side. This lust for winning and gaining control of others’ resources sometimes result in a war, and the invader becomes addict to winning again by engaging into further wars. On one hand, engaging into war escalates the economic activities due to the increasing demand for weaponry and supplies. On the other hand, engaging into war exhausts a country or state’s resources into destroying other country or state’s assets and its ability to counter attack the invading country or state. As the world is becoming globalized and entities of each country are coming closer due to extensive use of technology, more and more information is gathered in order to make assumptions about a country’s resources. On top of that, the invention of modern weaponry systems and aggressive war doctrin e possessed by armies of different nations in the world, paves way for setting up wars and winning them to capture resources. This can be seen as a scenario, where the big fish is always looking to hunt small fishes, even if the big fishes have their hunger fulfilled. This is because this is in their nature to hunt, thus falling victim to their addiction of hunting small fishes they neglect the outcomes. Similarly, countries of the world engage into war, even knowing that the outcomes of the war would be devastating for both invader and the invaded country (Barash 4-9). The coming section would present different theories and concepts presented by researchers and scholars from the past, pertaining to addiction to war and what are the reasons behind it. Theoretical Grounds for Addiction to War As soon as mankind stepped on earth it engaged in understanding what are the reasons that mankind keeps its luxuries and satisfaction behind, and commit war against each other. A number of resea rchers, scholars and philosophers have carried out extensive research into the area so that a century old question can be answered, i.e. why man is addicted to war? It is the resultant of hard work of researchers and scholars from the past that a number of theories are presented today which helps in understanding the phenomenon of addiction to war. In this manner, mankind today is also able to eliminate war doctrine from their militant activities  in order to ensure that peace and harmony maintains on earth. Despite of the fact that all theories and research work present almost similar ideas on addiction to war, every field of study has a different perspective in understanding this phenomenon. Followers of social school of thought view addiction to war as an act of social frustration and injustice, whereas economic school perceives addiction to war as a result to unavailability of resources. Business scholars view addiction to war as a result to scarcity of resources and an attemp t to keep control of greater competitive advantage over rivals. Despite of the fact that while understanding the causes of addiction to war is different in every discipline of life, political science seems to be the best field, which explains the causes of addiction to war. War has been defined as a comprehensive attempt of individuals, group of individuals or state to aggressively outclass their rivals on the battlefield or in any field of life. Theorists also views addiction to war

Photograhs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Photograhs - Assignment Example This paper is a formal and iconographic analysis of Arbus photographs as compared with the works of Annie Leibovitz. Arbus is basically revered for bringing out a unique quality known as rough empathy in her photographs. Her works embody commonly gendered attributes of mystery and neurosis, which generally distort the primary intent of the photographs. As Annie Leibovitz concentrated in cool, common images of ordinary people and objects, various works in Arbus’ name reveal her penchant for the images of the sidelined, the surreal, and the impaired. Unlike Leibovitz works, Arbus’s works are ethically weakened by the vulnerability and flawed nature of the subjects. Artistically, most of her works seem to be pathetic, miserable and repulsive, rather than attractive as work of art should be. What strikes every audience who views Arbus’s works is the convincing feeling of the natural environment, and how uninterrupted her subjects existed in it. In light of her natural touch evidenced in the photos, reducing the artist to the â€Å"photographer of freaks† clearly reveals an industry where people are unwilling to come to terms with the otherness of the images (Sontag 1). When Arbus took photographs of people lacking clearly discernible flaws, she often found the off attribute, the odd edging, and the unusual lighting that projected her art as pervaded by flaws. Loser at a diaper derby, N. J. (1967), for example, is one of her iconic works showing a toddler close-up, crying bitterly. The baby’s fat fists are clenched as a sign of mourning, with the silhouette image of his mother showing her ignorance of the toddler. The photograph reveals a case of existential solitude that troubles the massive number of cute, happy baby photos by many artists such as Leibovitz. Leibovitz’s Leonardo Dicaprio with a Swan (1997) reveals a flawless work of photography. The most attractive attribute of this photo is the

Ordovician Life in Ohio Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ordovician Life in Ohio - Research Paper Example This essay functions to consider the Ordovician sea life in the state of Ohio. In developing this examination it presents a brief investigation into the geological and general scientific elements related to the Ordovician period and then investigates the sea life that existed during this time. Ordovician Background The Ordovician period is a categorical definition of a period in geologic history. It roughly covers the time between 488 and 443 million years ago and falls within the Paleozoic Era. The period itself was named after a Celtic tribe of the Ordovices and gained its definition in the 19th century. The period itself is recognized as starting during the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events. In total, the period lasted for approximately 44.6 million years and concluded with the onset of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event, which distinguishes nearly 60% of marine genera (Moore, Teichert 1978). These dates and distinguishing elements represent slight estimations, as they s hift occasionally with the discovery of new radiometric patterns; the exact time period differs as sources disagree over various data elements. Within the Ordovician period, there are a great many subdivisions, as distinguished by the years in which they occurred. One of the primary concerns of this era is in relation to paleogeography. Paleogeography indicates that during this period sea levels were generally high (Moore and Teichert 1978). Indeed, it’s been noted that the Ordovician period witnessed the As one later considers the Ordovician period in terms of the state of Ohio they will recognize that sea level and continent positioning was drastically different. During this period the southern area continents were part of one whole referred to as Gondwana. In addition to Gondwana there was also the continent of Baltica and Siberia, both which are now parts of present-day northern Europe, but at the time separate entities. In terms of the state of Ohio, the North American c ontent was linked and referred to as Laurentia. There was tremendous geological change during this period, with underwater volcanoes emerging that would go on to form the Appalachian mountain range. Ordovician Life Abundant life emerged during the Cambrian period, and this life carried over to the proceeding Ordovician period. This life evolved and divided into new species many of which existed throughout what would later become the Ohio region. While fossilized sea life has been discovered throughout Ohio, perhaps the most prominent discoveries have come in the southwestern region of the state. It has even jokingly been noted that if one were to remove all of the Ordovician rocks from the Cincinnati area, then the state would once again fall below sea level. While there are a variety of sea life fossils that have been discovered in Ohio, scientists have identified a number as the most prominent. One of the most prominent such sea life fossils in Ohio are bryozoans. It’s been indicated that these animals, â€Å"lived in branching, tree-like colonies or flattened, encrusting masses on shells of other invertebrates. In some areas, bryozoans litter the outcrop. Brachiopods are no less spectacularly abundant than bryozoans and are a favorite of the beginning collector.

Why did (west) Germany experience a smoother consolidation of Essay

Why did (west) Germany experience a smoother consolidation of democracy after World War Two than has Mexico more recently - Essay Example democracy can be used to define the power of the people to elect the government representative that is capable of enacting just judgment without prejudice and hate freely. A democratic society allows individuals to experience the freedom without limitations on the choices they make in achieving progress. The people are the makers of a nation, and their policies need to be met without causing discomfort to attribute a free society. Dictatorship, corruption and poor power delegation have been some measures that have led to the unjust policies that limit democracy. Once democracy is achieved, individuals are capable of having their demands met by the government selected and express their desire openly through the personality that they have elected or through the free media. Monarchy and a dictatorship-filled government have been expressed as the systems that limit public participation in policymaking. Germany had defined the society that lacks democracy under their tyrannical leader Hit ler. Hitler had implemented efforts to conquer the world and ruled his nation with policies that he had formulated to benefit his selfish desires. On the other hand, Mexico has been struggling to achieve development even after achieving independence from the Spanish to define a poverty level that warrants intervention. This paper compares the democracy achievement of (west) Germany as compared to the modern day Mexico. Second World War, 1939-1945 had been blamed on the efforts by Hitler to expand his boundaries and gain domination of the world. Hitler had been defeated to lead to the rise of a new Germany attributed to the republic of Bonn (Prowe 1985, p451). This period had been marked with a period of crisis, which was mostly marked with increased political and social chaos. The nation had been used to the rule of the dictator who gave limited room for expression and discriminated against the Jews who were in war against the Nazi. The compositions that had defined Germany had been

Ecommerce in Bangladesh Essay Example for Free

Ecommerce in Bangladesh Essay 1. Introduction When Electronic commerce, commonly known as ecommerce, is the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on such technologies as electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the at least at one point in the transactions life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as email, mobile devices and telephones as well. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of ebusiness [1]. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions. E-commerce can be divided into: i. E-tailing or virtual storefronts on Web sites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a virtual mall ii. The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts iii. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), the business-tobusiness exchange of data iv. E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospects and established customers (for example, with newsletters) v. Business-to-business buying and selling vi. The security of business transactions The main areas of e-commerce are following: i. Business to Business (B2B) ii. Business to Consumer (B2C) iii. Business to Government (B2G) iv. Government to Business (G2B) 2. Objectives Our objectives are following: i. To define e-commerce and describe how it differs from ebusiness. ii. To identify and describe the unique features of ecommerce technology and discuss their business significance. iii. To describe the major types of e-commerce. iv. To discuss the origins and growth of e-commerce. v. To explain the evolution of e-commerce from its early years to today. vi. To identify the factors that will define the future of ecommerce. vii. To describe the major themes underlying the study of ecommerce. viii. To identify the major academic disciplines contributing to e-commerce and understand design of an e-commerce engine ix. To identify the opportunity and problem of e-commerce implementation in Bangladesh. x. To identify the future of e-commerce. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 150 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 3. E-Commerce in Bangladesh In Bangladesh there is a limited application and use of B2C e-commerce .This field is not yet much developed in Bangladesh. There are many reasons behind it one simple reason this country is not so developed and most of its citizens are poor and uneducated. It is quit natural that there are few customers who is willing and can shop in internet. It will take years to be developed this sector in bd. The telecommunication infrastructure any country affect the Internet services directly, cause it is largely depended on it. In this chapter Define Need for e-commerce in Bangladesh, different sector in Bangladesh, overview of implementation stage of e-commerce in Bangladesh. And there is some problem such as: low internet speed, no payment gateway and internet range, and recommendation. 3.1 Need for E-commerce in Bangladesh With the increasing diffusion of ICTs, more specifically t he Internet, the global business community is rapidly moving towards Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce. The buyers/ importers gain a clear advantage when the Internet gives them access to the global market, by which they can compare prices across regions, find out whether prices vary by order fragmentation, get awareness about substitute/ alternative products. Consequently, the sellers/ exporters make sure that they are well portrayed in the cyber world through websites and portals. Like buyers, sellers also benefit from increased and more efficient access to the global market through the Internet. Bangladesh is pursuing an economic policy of export-led growth. With the rising forces of globalization, it is becoming increasingly important that the private sector, particularly the export sectors are well prepared to meet the requirements and expectations of the importers and also stand out in the competition against exporters in other countries. In such a scenario, two issues are becoming particularly important for Bangladeshi export sectors –one, whether businesses are automating their internal processes with these of ICTs to become increasingly efficient and competitive in a global context, and two, whether businesses have effective presence and participation in the cyber world. International organizations such as UNCTAD (United Nations Center for Trade and Development) and WTO (World Trade Organization) [2] have, over the last several years, put much emphasis on the importance of e-commerce for developing countries. UNCTAD has special programs to facilitate developing countries to transition into e-commerce. The WTO has also develo ped rules and guidelines for global e-commerce transactions. 3.2 E-commerce in Different Sector in Bangladesh Despite being a under developed country, selected segments of the Bangladeshi business community has embraced technology with reasonable success. Personal computers and the Internet are also emerging as day-to-day business tools. These positive indicators are favoring the prospects of e-commerce in Bangladesh. i. RMG Sector ii. Banking on the Web (Online Banking) iii. Online Shopping iv. Web Hosting, Domain v. Online cards, gifts vi. Pay Bill 3.3 The Existing Situation and Potential of E-commerce in Bangladesh Internet services are presently available in Bangladesh. Its usage for e-commerce by the Bangladeshi producers to export as well as to access inputs will be dependent on their willingness and ability to use this medium as well as that of the buyers of final products and the sellers of intermediate goods and services. Figure 1 depicts the three dimensions of e-commerce. Business to-Consumers (B2C) e-commerce is practically non-existent within Bangladesh, while a very limited level of Business-to-Business (B2B) and Businessto-Government (B2G) transactions exists [3]. The potential for use of e-commerce by Bangladeshi consumers and businesses with foreign firms is much brighter, and can play an important role in boosting the country’s exports. A significant volume of B2G is also possible, as the government remains the biggest spender. Figure 1. The Three Dimensions of E-commerce 3.4 E-commerce growth in Bangladesh E-commerce growth in Bangladesh shown in figure 3.2 in the year of 2000 e-commerce business is 11440 million taka. In the years of 2001 business of e-commerce is 15840 million taka and increase year by year 2002 business is 18980 million taka 2002 to 2004 businesses is not very fast but in the year of 2005 business of e-commerce is 22480 and end the year of 2006 business of e-commerce growth is 252000 million taka. Figure 2. E-commerce growth in Bangladesh 4. Methodologies The methodologies of our survey are given below: 4.1 Identification of scope of study 151 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 To accomplish the project objectives, a systematic process is followed. The project process begins with the identification of the project topic where studies was carried out to obtain enough information on the topic. 4.2 Group discussions to collect suggestions on the survey of e-commerce system Discuss with group member about the topic and collect their suggestions on this topic. Also discuss impacts of ecommerce in our society and business and barriers ecommerce in different sectors in Bangladesh and the future of e-commerce system. 4.3 E-commerce site visits as clients Some e-commerce websites visits were made as clients. We visited websites like www.ebay.com, browsed many products, added product to shopping cart, created user account and observed the check out process. We also examined their user interface, front end design and various category of product. We searched products by different types, t he product names and the company name. 4.4 Internet search to collect data on e-commerce growth world wide We searched the internet to collect data on e-commerce business growth based on time, data on e-commerce revenue based on geographic locations. We also collected data about e-commerce business growth and present situation of ecommerce in Bangladesh. 4.5 Architecture and code review of e-commerce site We reviewed the main technologies involved in ecommerce site, which include php sessions, catalog technology, server technology (hardware and software). We also reviewed credit card transaction and shopping cart checkout process. 4.6 Interviews to find what people think about ecommerce We interviewed people from various sections of the society to find out what they think about e-commerce and what changes they needed. We also discussed with them what the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce systems are. 4.7 Introducing intentional change to understand ecommerce engine We downloaded e-commerce site code and changed the catalog of product, banner, product detail, product image, and increase and decrease number of product show in the main page also changed the theme of e-commerce site. We entered new products and removed selling product and updated the products. 5.1 Architecture This is the design of front-end design shown in Figure 3. There is a one home page, wish list, acco unt, shopping cart, and product list and checkout option. Figure 3. E-commerce site front end design 5.2 Database Structure 5.2.1 E-R Diagram A sample entity–relationship diagram using Chens notation is shown in Figure 4. 5. Technical Design of E-Commerce Site The technical design of e-commerce site include database structure, database schema, table structure, php session, shopping cart, e-r diagram, and credit card transaction. Figure 4. A sample entity–relationship diagram using Chens notation In software engineering, an entity–relationship model (ER model for short) is an abstract [4] and conceptual representation of data. Entity–relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system, often 152 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion. Diagrams created by this process are called entity– relationship diagrams or ER diagrams. Using the three schema approach to software engineering, there are three levels of ER models that may be developed. The conceptual data model is the highest level ER model in that it contains the least granular detail but establishes the overall scope of what is to be included within the model set. The conceptual ER model normally defines master reference data entities that are commonly used by the organization. Developing an enterprise-wide conceptual ER model is useful to support documenting the data architecture for an organization. A conceptual ER model may be used as the foundation for one or more logical data models. The purpose of the conceptual ER model is then to establish structural metadata commonality for the master data entities between the set of logical ER models. The conceptual data model may be used to form commonality relationships between ER models as a basis for data m odel integration. A logical ER model does not require a conceptual ER model especially if the scope of the logical ER model is to develop a single disparate information system. The logical ER model contains more detail than the conceptual ER model. In addition to master data entities, operational and transactional data entities are now defined [5]. The details of each data entity are developed and the entity relationships between these data entities are established. The logical ER model is however developed independent of technology into which it will be implemented. One or more physical ER models may be developed from each logical ER model. The physical ER model is normally developed be instantiated as a database. Therefore, each physical ER model must contain enough detail to produce a database and each physical ER model is technology dependent since each database management system is somewhat different. The physical model is normally forward engineered to instantiate the structur al metadata into a database management system as relational database objects such as database tables, database indexes such as unique key indexes, and database constraints such as a foreign key constraint or a commonality constraint. The ER model is also normally used to design modifications to the relational database objects and to maintain the structural metadata of the database. The first stage of information system design uses these models during the requirements analysis to describe information needs or the type of information that is to be stored in a database. The data modeling technique can be used to describe any ontology (i.e. an overview and classifications of used terms and their relationships) for a certain area of interest. In the case of the design of an information system that is based on a database, the conceptual data model is, at a later stage (usually called logical design), mapped to a logical data model, such as the relational model; this in turn is mapped to a physical model during physical design. 5.2.2 The Building Blocks: Entities, Relationships, and Attributes The building blocks: entities, relationships, and attributes as shown in Figure 5, first here two related entities then an entity with an attribute next in this figure a relationship with and attribute and finally see primary key. Figure 5. The building blocks: entities, relationships, and attributes An entity may be defined as a thing which is recognized as being capable of an independent existence and which can be uniquely identified. An entity is an abstraction from the complexities of some domain. When we speak of an entity we normally speak of some aspect of the real world which can be distinguished from other aspects of the real world. An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as a customer transaction or order. Although the term entity is the one most commonly used, following Chen we should really distinguish between an entity and an entity-type. An entity-type is a category. An entity, strictly speaking, is an instance of a given entity-type. There are usually many instances of an entity-type. Because the term entity-type is somewhat cumbersome, most people tend to use the term entity as a synonym for this term. Entiti es can be thought of as nouns. Examples: a computer, an employee, a song, a mathematical theorem. A relationship captures how entities are related to one another. Relationships can be thought of as verbs, linking two or more nouns. Examples: owns relationship between a company and a computer, supervises relationship between an employee and a department [6], performs relationship between an artist and a song, a proved relationship between a mathematician and a theorem. The models linguistic aspect described above is utilized in Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 153 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 the declarative database query language ERROL, which mimics natural language, constructs. ERROLs semantics and implementation are based on Reshaped relational algebra (RRA), a relational algebra which is adapted to the entity–relationship model and captures its linguistic aspect. Entities and relationships can both have attributes. Examples: an employee entity might have a Social Security Number (SSN) attribute; the proved relationship may have a date attribute. Every entity (unless it is a weak entity) must have a minimal set of uniquely identifying attributes, which is called the entitys primary key. Entity–relationship diagrams dont show single entities or single instances of relations. Rather, they show entity sets and relationship sets. Example: a particular song is an entity. The collection of all songs in a database is an entity set. The eaten relationship between a child and her l unch is a single relationship. The set of all such child-lunch relationships in a database is a relationship set. In other words, a relationship set corresponds to a relation in mathematics, while a relationship corresponds to a member of the relation. 5.2.3Relationships, Roles and Cardinalities In Chens original paper he gives an example of a relationship and its roles. He describes a relationship marriage and its two roles husband and wife. A person plays the role of husband in a marriage (relationship) and another person plays the role of wife in the (same) marriage. These words are nouns. That is no surprise; naming things requires a noun. However as is quite usual with new ideas, many eagerly appropriated the new terminology but then applied it to their own old ideas. Thus the lines, arrows and crows-feet of their diagrams owed more to the earlier Bachman diagrams than to Chens relationship diamonds. And they similarly misunderstood other important concepts. In particular, it b ecame fashionable (now almost to the point of exclusivity) to name relationships and roles as verbs or phrases. 5.2.4 Limitations ER models assume information content that can readily be represented in a relational database. They describe only a relational structure for this information. Hence, they are inadequate for systems in which the information cannot readily be represented in relational form, such as with semistructured data. Furthermore, for many systems, the possible changes to the information contained are nontrivial and important enough to warrant explicit specification. Some authors have extended ER modeling with constructs to represent change, an approach supported by the original author; an example is Anchor Modeling. An alternative is to model change separately, using a process modeling technique. Additional techniques can be used for other aspects of systems. For instance, ER models roughly Figure 6. E-R modeling 5.3 Table Structure In relational databases and flat file databases, a table is a set of data elements (values) that is organized using a model of vertical columns (which are identified by their name) and horizontal rows, the cell being the unit where a row and column intersect. A table has a specified number of columns, but can have any number of rows each row is identified by the values appearing in a particular column subset which has been identified as a unique key index. Table is another term for relations; although there is the difference in that a table is usually a multi-set (bag) of rows whereas a relation is a set and does not allow duplicates. Besides the actual data rows, tables generally have associated with them some meta-information, such as constraints on the table or on the values within particular columns. The data in a table does not have to be physically stored in the database. Views are also relational tables, but 154 correspond to just 1 of the 14 different modeling techniques offered by UML. Another limitation: ER modeling is aimed at specifying information from scratch. This suits the design of new, standalone information systems, but is of less help in integrating pre-existing information sources that already define their own data representations in detail. Even where it is suitable in principle, ER modeling is rarely used as a separate activity. One reason for this is todays abundance of tools to support diagramming and other design support directly on relational database management systems. These tools can readily extract database diagrams that are very close to ER diagrams from existing databases, and they provide alternative views on the information contained in such diagrams. In a survey, Brodie [7] and Liu could not find a single instance of entity–relationship modeling inside a sample of ten Fortune 100 companies. Badia and Lemire blame this lack of use on the lack of guidance but also on the lack of benefits, such as lack of support for data integration. Also, the enhanced entity–relationship model (EER modeling) introduces several concepts which are not present in ER modeling. ER modeling as shown in Figure 6. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 their data are calculated at query time. Another example is nicknames, which represent a pointer to a table in another database. 5.4 Database Schema A database schema of a database system is its structure described in a formal language supported by the database management system (DBMS) and refers to the organization of data to create a blueprint of how a database will be constructed (divided into database tables). The formal definition of database schema is a set of formulas (sentences) called integrity constraints imposed on a database. These integrity constraints ensure compatibility between parts of the schema. All constraints are expressible in the same language. A database can be considered a structure in realization of the database language. The states of a created conceptual schema are transformed into an explicit mapping, the database schema. This describes how real world entities are modeled i n the database. A database schema specifies, based on the database administrators knowledge of possible applications, the facts that can enter the database, or those of interest to the possible end-users. The notion of a database schema plays the same role as the notion of theory in predicate calculus. A model of this â€Å"theory† closely corresponds to a database, which can be seen at any instant of time as a mathematical object. Thus a schema can contain formulas representing integrity constraints specifically for an application and the constraints specifically for a type of database, all expressed in the same database language. In a relational database [8], the schema defines the tables, fields, relationships, views, indexes, packages, procedures, functions, queues, triggers, types, sequences, materialized views, synonyms, database links, directories, Java, XML schemas, and other elements. Schemas are generally stored in a data dictionary. Although a schema is defined in text database language, the term is often used to refer to a graphical depiction of the database structure. In other words, schema is the structure of the database that defines the objects in the database. In an Oracle Database system, the term schema has a slightly different connotation. For the interpretation used in an Oracle Database, see schema object. 5.5 Levels of Database Schema A conceptual schema or conceptual data model is a map of concepts and their relationships. This describes the semantics of an organization and represents a series of assertions about its nature. Specifically, it describes the things of significance to an organization (entity classes), about which it is inclined to collect information, and characteristics of (attributes) and associations between pairs of those things of significance (relationships). Figure 7. Conceptual schema or conceptual data model A logical schema is an alias that allows a unique name to be given to all the physical schemas containing the same data store structures. The aim of the logical schema is to ensure the portability of the procedures and models on the different physical schemas. In this way, all developments in Designer are carried out exclusively on logical schemas. A logical schema can have one or more physical implementations on separate physical schemas, but they must be based on data servers of the same technology. A logical schema is always directly linked to a technology. To be usable, a logical schema must be declared in a context. Declaring a logical schema in a context consists of indicating which physical schema corresponds to the alias logical schema for this context. For example: The logical schema LEDGER is the set of Sybase tables required for the functioning of the accounting application. These tables are stored in a physical schema for each installation of the accounting application. Work in Designer or Operator is always done on the logical schema LEDGER. Only the context allows the physical schema on which the operations are actually done to be determined. Thus, the user can switch from one physical environment to another in a single action. A logical schema’s example is shown in figure 8. Table 1: Name of the logical schema Name of the logical schema LEDGER LEDGER LEDGER Context Boston Seattle Production Seattle Test Physical Schema Sybase Boston LDG Sybase SEATTLE PROD LDG Sybase SEATTLE TEST LDG Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 155 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 This article discusses the Oracle use of the term. For other uses of schema in a database context, such as a graphical representation of tables and other objects in a database, see database schema. In an Oracle database, associated with each database user is a schema. A schema comprises a collection of schema objects. Examples of schema objects include: tables, views, sequences, synonyms, indexes, clusters, database links, snapshots, procedures, functions and packages. Figure 8. Logical schemas Physical schema is a term used in data management to describe how data is to be represented and stored (files, indices, et al.) in secondary storage using a particular database management system (DBMS) (e.g., Oracle RDBMS, Sybase SQL Server, etc.). The logical schema was the way data were represented to conform to the constraints of a particular approach to database management. At that time the choices were hierarchical and network. Describing the logical schema, however, still did not describe how physically data would be stored on disk drives. That is the domain of the physical schema. Now logical schemas describe data in terms of relational tables and columns, object-oriented classes, and XML tags. A single set of tables, for example, can be implemented in numerous ways, up to and including an architecture where table rows are maintained on computers in different countries. Figure 10. Schema objects 5.6 Php Sessions A PHP session variable is used to store information about, or change settings for a user session. Session variables hold information about one single user, and are available to all pages in one application [9]. When you are working with an application, you open it, do some changes and then you close it. This is much like a Session. The computer knows who you are. It knows when you start the application and when you end. But on the internet there is one problem: the web server does not know who you are and what you do because the HTTP address doesnt maintain state. A PHP session solves this problem by allowing you to store user information on the server for later use (i.e. username, shopping items, etc). However, session information is temporary and will be deleted after the user has left the website. If you need a permanent storage you may want to store the data in a database. Sessions work by creating a unique id (UID) for each visitor and store variables based on this UID. The UID is either stored in a cookie or is propagated in the URL. In PHP, sessions can keep track of authenticated in users. They are an essential building block in todays websites with big communities and a lot of user activity. Without sessions, everyone would be an anonymous visitor. In system terms, PHP sessions are little files, stored on the servers disk. But on high traffic sites, the disk I/O involved, and not being able to share sessions between multiple web servers make this default system far from ideal. This is how to enhance PHP session managem ent in terms of performance and share ability. If you have multiple web servers all serving the same site, sessions should be shared among those servers, and not 156 Figure 9. Physical schema In Database lore, a schema object is a logical data storage structure. This possibly originates from the use of the term in the context of Oracle databases. The term schema can have other meanings when talking about non-Oracle databases. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 reside on each servers individual disk. Because once a user gets load-balanced to a different server, the session cannot be found, effectively logging the user out. A common way around this is to use custom session handlers. 5.7 Shopping Card A shopping cart is a software application that typically runs on the computer where your Web site is located (the Web server), and allows your customers to do things such as searching for a product in your store catalog, adding a selected product to a basket, and placing an order for it. The shopping cart integrates with the rest of your Web site. In other words, there are typically links on your Web pages that customers can click on, and which allow them to perform some of the functions described above. For example, many e-commerce Web sites have a search link appearing on every Web page, as part of the navigation area Shopping carts are written in a variety of different programming languages. Some of them provide full access to the source code, thus allowing experienced programmers to make modifications to the system features, some others dont. Some shopping carts run on Windows Web servers, some on Unix, others on both. In most cases, you can place the shopping cart on your Web server simply by transferring its files there using any FTP [10] software, where FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. For example, our shopping cart software called Product Card is a collection of files written in a programming language called Classic ASP, and that you host on a Windows server. Experienced programmers can customize the system as they wish as the source code is included. iii. Merchant runs credit card through the point of sale unit. The amount of the sale is either hand-entered or transmitted by the cash register. iv. Merchant transmits the credit card data and sales amount with a request for authorization of the sale to their acquiring bank. . v. The acquiring bank that processes the transaction, routes the authorization request to the card-issuing bank. The credit card number identifies type of card, issuing bank, and the cardholders account. vi. If the cardholder has enough credit in their account to cover the sale, the issuing bank authorizes the transaction and generates an authorization code. This code is sent back to the acquiring bank. vii. The acquiring bank processing the transaction, and then sends the approval or denial code to the merchants point of sale unit. Each point of sale device has a separate terminal ID for credit card processors to be able to route data back to that particular unit. viii. A sale draft, or slip, is printed out by the point of sale unit or cash register. The merchant asks the buyer to sign the sale draft, which obligates them to reimburse the cardissuing bank for the amount of the sale. ix. At a later time, probably that night when the store is closing up, the merchant reviews all the auth orizations stored in the point of sale unit against the signed sales drafts. When all the credit card authorizations have been verified to match the actual sales drafts, the merchant will capture, or transmit, the data on each authorized credit card transaction to the acquiring bank for deposit. This is in lieu of depositing the actual signed paper drafts with the bank. x. The acquiring bank performs what is called an interchange for each sales draft, with the appropriate card-issuing bank. The card-issuing bank transfers the amount of the sales draft, minus an interchange fee to the acquiring bank. xi. The acquiring bank then deposits the amount of the all the sales drafts submitted by the merchant, less a discount fee, into the merchants bank account. Credit card transaction is shown in Figure 12. Figure 11. Google Checkout shopping cart 5.8 Credit Card Transaction From the information presented in the preceding sections, we can start to piece together what is occurring during a credit card transaction. We know that merchants have a relationship with either an acquiring bank or independent sales organization, through which they have their credit card transactions processed. The section on industry terminology shows us some of the fees involved in this process. Merchants must pay the acquiring bank or ISO a discount fee based on the total amount of the sale. Likewise, the acquiring bank or ISO must pay the card issuer an interchange fee when they process the sales draft from the merchant. Steps involved in a normal credit card transaction: i. Merchant calculates the amount of purchase and asks buyer for payment ii. Buyer presents merchant with a credit card. Figure 12. Credit card transaction 6. Conclusion Electronic commerce or e-commerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. E157 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 commerce has grown tremendously worldwide. In the future e-commerce may become totally mobile based. In Bangladesh E-commerce also become a very powerful business mechanism but Bangladesh will have to overcome the problems with poor network connectivity and electronic payment issues. The problems identified in this Project are: Security problem, Confusing checkout process, Customers can’t find products, Customers can’t touch and fell a product, No sales staff means any chance of up-selling, Language barrier. Regarding the identified problems the following solutions have been proposed: Merchant needs to ensure the platform employs strong encryption for payment processing and customer data retention. E-commerce platform should always have a visible running total of purchases prominently displayed during the customer experience. E-commerce platform must support the ability to present the customer with nested categories as well as a search box. An e-commerce platform should also support the ability to attach multiple pictures to a product catalog page, allowing the consumer to view the product from multiple angles. E-commerce platform needs to be able to associate products with related and complimentary products. The system should allow all tran slation to be done centrally. My M.Sc Engg. in CSE is running at Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh. My research interest areas are the image processing, Computer Networks, Computer Networks and Data Security, Compiler, Theory of Computations, etc. My several papers Published in International Journals. Muhammad Golam Kibria, Assistant Professor and Head, Department of CSE, University of Information Technology Sciences, Dhaka, Bangladesh. I completed Masters in Mobile Computing and Communication from the University of Greenwich, London, UK. My research interests are Computer Network Security and image processing, Sensor, Robotics and Wireless Sensor Network. Mohammad Nuruzzaman Bhuiyan is working as a Lecturer at the Department of CSE IT, University of Information Technology Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212.Bangladesh. I have completed my B.Sc Engg. and M.Sc Engg. in CS from The University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK. My research interest areas are Fundamental of Computer, Web technology, Computer Networks, Computer Networks and Data Security, Theory of Computations, etc. My several papers accepted in International Journals. References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_commerce [2] Tkacz, Ewaryst; Kapczynski, Adrian (2009), Springer, P. 255 [3] Online Today, The Electronic Mall. CIS/compuserve nostalgia. Http://www.gsbrown.org/compuserve/electronic-mall1984-04/. [4] http://www.marketwatch.com/story/amazon-buysdiaperscom-parent-in-545-mln-deal-2010-11-08/. [5] http://techcrunch.com/2011/03/28/ebay-to-acquire-gsicommerce-for-2-4-billion [6] Miller, Holmes E. And Engemann, Kurt J. (1996); A methodology for managing information-based risk; Information Resources Management Journal; 9:2; 17-24 [7] http://www.e-consultancy.com/news blog/363726/whydo-customers-abandon-the-Checkoutprocess.htmlcopyright 2008 Voloper Creations Inc. 7 [8] http://www.articlesbase.com/e-commercearticles/impacts-of-e-commerce-on-business1882952.html [9] http://www.startupsmart.com.au/mentor/michaelfox/2011-02-03 Authors Profile Md. Akbor Hossain received the B.Sc degrees in CSE University of Information Technology and Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. I am working as a Lab Demonstrator at the Department of CSE IT, University of Information Technology Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. *Md. Akkas Ali is working as a Lecturer at the Department of CSE IT, University of Information Technology Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka1212, Bangladesh. I completed my B.Sc Engg. in CSE from Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Chittagong-4349, Bangladesh. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net

advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations

advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations Introduction Vaccination or immunization is a means of providing specific protection against many common and damaging pathogens by stimulating an organisms immune system to either produce humoral antibodies against the pathogen (or toxins produced by the pathogen) or T cells that can provide cell-mediated immunity (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Though ancient scientists did mention about prevention of infectious diseases through immunisation, it was Edward Jenner who developed the first vaccine. The vaccine was developed against small pox in the year 1796. The next vaccine came up almost a century later by Louis Pasteur. The vaccine was anti-rabies vaccine and was first used in 1885. The development of anti-rabies vaccine kindled hope for prevention of other infectious diseases, leading to immense research and development of several other vaccines (Shah, Nitin and Kukrej, 2007). The term vaccination was coined by Edward Jenner. Vaccination is the method of causing immunity to a disease by administration of an antigenic material into the body. The term vaccination is used interchangeably with immunity, which is derived from the Greek word immune which means to be protected. Several vaccines have been developed which either prevent or ameliorate several infectious diseases. The first disease for which vaccine was developed is small pox. Infact, even before Edward Jenner developed a proper vaccine against small pox, people in India and China inoculated fluids taken from small pox vesicles of patients suffering from mild course of disease. Despite the marked usefulness of vaccination in the prevention of infectious diseases, vaccination is still a much debated topic and has several medical safety, ethical, political and religious implications. In this essay, vaccination, types of vaccines, implications of vaccination and novel vaccines will be discussed with reference to recent literature. Mechanism of action of vaccines Vaccines act by developing immunity to the particular disease by inducing the development of antibodies. There are basically 2 types of immunity, innate immunity and acquired immunity. Innate immunity develops after actual exposure to the disease organism. Acquired immunity develops after exposure to vaccination. Acquired immunity may be active or passive immunity. Active immunity is that immunity that develops following exposure to antigenic stimulus, while passive immunity develops after direct injection of antibodies in the form of either sera or immunoglobulins, inside the body. The type of immunity rendered by vaccination is active immunity. Passive immunity confers temporary protection. The antibodies are taken from individuals or animals who are already infected with the disease. Active immunity renders long term protection (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). A pathogenic infectious agent induces disease and at the same time triggers the immune system of the host to develop antibodies against the disease. These antibodies help in the recovery of the host from the disease and continue to offer protection to subsequent infections from the same pathogen. This principle has been used for vaccination. Through vaccination, antigens which mimic the original pathogen of the respective disease are introduced into the body. The antigens only trigger the immune response, but do not cause the disease. The immune response may be cell-mediated or humoral, or even both, depending on which series of T helper lymphocytes are stimulated. Stimulation of Th1 series leads to lymphocytic response, while stimulation of Th2 series leads to humoral response. The timing of vaccine is based on several factors, the most important of which is the susceptibility of the disease, reactogenecity and presence of maternal antibodies. Thus, BCG and OPV vaccines are given at birth, because the child can get exposed to tuberculosis and polio at birth due to absence of maternal immunity and risk of susceptibility at this age. Similarly, vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, hemophilus influenza are given in early childhood for maximum reactogenecity and protection against the diseases (Shah, 2007). Many vaccines are given together and this makes sense because concurrent administration of more than one vaccine does not interfere with the take of one another. It is important to give atleast 4 weeks time before the administration of second dose of the same vaccine (Shah, 2007). Types of vaccines The antigens in vaccines may be either live organisms, modified exotoxins, subunits of organisms or whole inactivated organisms. There are basically two types of vaccine: live vaccines and inactivated vaccines. In live vaccines, the pathogen, either virus or bacteria is weakened or attenuated. They act by causing non-clinical and self-limiting disease, thus triggering the immune system and inducing immunity. On administration, the pathogens multiply in the host and trigger immune response. The pathogens do not cause any disease because they are attenuated. However, in immunocompromised patients, live vaccines can cause disease. One major advantage with live vaccines is that a single dose is sufficient to confer long-term immunity. Examples of live vaccines are oral polio vaccine, measles vaccine, mumps vaccine and yellow fever vaccine (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Inactivated vaccines consist of either killed pathogens, subunits of pathogens or toxins released by pathogens. The killed vaccines are made up of pathogens which are grown in suitable culture, subsequent to which the pathogens, either bacteria or virus are killed either thermally or chemically with formaldehyde. More often than not, the polysaccharide immunogenic antigen is binded chemically with a protein molecule, to enhance the immunogenecity of the vaccine. Inactivated vaccines have to be given in multiple doses. The immunity is for a short period. Hence boosters doses are essential. Examples of inactivated virus vaccines are, hepatitis A vaccine, inactivated polio vaccine and rabies vaccine. Inactivated bacterial vaccines are whole cell killed typhoid vaccine and pertussis vaccine. Viral subunit vaccine is HBsAg vaccine. Toxoid vaccines are tetanus and diphtheria vaccines. Capsular polysaccharide vaccines are hemophilus influenza, typhoid Vi, pneumococcal and meningococcal vacc ines. In these vaccines, though the pathogens are destroyed and are not able to undergo replications, the capsid proteins, which are antigens are recognized by the immune system of the vaccinees, causing an immune response (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Bacterial subunit vaccine is acellular pertussis vaccine. Sub-unit vaccines are those which use purified components of the cell wall to initiate immune response in the vaccinee. Some of the examples of such vaccines are meningococcus, pertussis, hemophilus and pneumococcus vaccines. An interesting vaccine worth discussing at this juncture is the hepatitis-B vaccine which is developed by purification of the antigenic proteins that are manufactured subsequent to expression from a gene that is cloned into a vector like yeast (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Polysaccharide vaccines are basically weak antigens that are T-independent and hence cause IgM responses without development of immunologic memory that is critical for stable and long-term imm unity. In such vaccines, the immunogenecity is enhanced by conjugating the antigens with other proteins like meningococcus, hemophilus and pneumococcus that are T-dependent and induce immulogic memory (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). The type of vaccination needed for a specific disease depends on the pathogenesis of the disease. For example, pathogens like diphtheria and tetanus cause the disease by releasing certain toxins called exotoxins. In these cases, antibodies which neutralise and prevent the binding of the exotoxin to respective receptors on the target cells prevent the disease. Thus vaccines against diphtheria and tetanus are toxoids. On the other hand, other pathogens have other pathogeneses, and consequently, antibodies which either react directly with the pathogen or eliminate the pathogen through either intracellular killing, complement mediated lysis or phagocytosis are essential. Pathogens like protozoa, viruses and intracellular bacteria which harbor inside the cells cannot be accessed by the antibodies and in such diseases, cells harboring the pathogens need to be destroyed (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Immunity conferred by a particular vaccine may be either lifelong or may last for few months. Examples of former type of vaccines are mumps, rubella, measles, tuberculosis, small pox and yellow fever. Cholera vaccine confers immunity only for few months and hence may be used only during outbreaks. Vaccines like diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio and hemophilus influenza are part of primary immunization and must be given between 2-3 months of age. Mumps, measles and rubella vaccines must be given between 13- 15 months (Shah et al, 2007). Adjuvants Adjuvants are those chemicals which are added in the vaccine to enhance the immunogenecity of the vaccines. The most widely used adjuvants are aluminum salts, which are used in DPT. Other adjuvants which are in experimental stage include Freuds complete and incomplete adjuvants, certain oligonucleotides and some synthetic polymers. Certain bacteria also act as adjuvants and examples are Nocardia and BCG. Adjuvants increase immunogenecity by recognizing TOLL-like receptors, leading to activation of mononuclear phagocytes and induction of certain cytokines which enhance Th1 and Th2 responses (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Prophylactic and therapeutic immunisation Most of the vaccines are given as a prophylactic measures against their respective diseases, in the sense, the vaccines are given prior to exposure to the disease pathogen. In case of rabies and tetanus, the vaccination is given after exposure to the pathogen and this is known as post-exposure immunization. In some situations like tetanus, which has very short incubation period, both active and passive immunisation may be necessary post-exposure (Shah, 2007). Strains used Only particular strains are used for the development of any vaccine. Danish 1331 and Copenhagen are the commonly used strains in the BCG vaccine. Both are strains of mycobacterium bovis. In each 0.1ml, 0.1- 0.4 million live viable bacilli are present. Each vial of OPV vaccine contains more than one million inactivated viruses 1,2 and 3. Measles vaccine is derived from live attenuated Edmonston Zagreb strain that is grown in the human diploid cell culture. MMR vaccine vaccine contains 1000 TCID50 of measles, 5000 TCID50 of mumps and 1000 TCID50 of rubella virus . There are several strains from which measles vaccine is developed and they are Edmonston Zagreb, Schwarz, Moraten and Edmonston B strains. The strains are grown in human diploid cell culture and live attenuated viruses are used to prepare the vaccine. Of these, Edmonston Zagreb strain is the most commonly used strain. The mumps strains used are Urabe AM9, Leningrad-Zagreb, RIT 4385 or Jerryl Lynn. The efficacy between various strains is similar. The strains are grown in chick embryo or human diploid cell cultures. For preparing the rubella vaccine, the strain used is RA 27/3 vaccine strain. The virus is grown in human diploid or chick embryo cell cultures. Live attenuated form of the virus is used for preparation of the vaccine (Shah, 2007). Market availability BCG vaccines are available in multi-dose dark colored ampoules. Single dose vaccine is not available. The vials are available as 10-dose vial and 20 dose vial. The 10 dose vial has to be reconstituted with 0.5 ml of normal saline and the 20 dose vial has to be reconstituted with 1ml sodium chloride solution (Shah, 2007). Storage Storage again, depends on the type of vaccine. Constituents of BCG vaccine are freeze-dried and can be stored at temperatures between 2-80 degree centigrade for one year. The preparation is vacuum sealed. Hence the ampoule must be opened carefully after gradual filing to avoid sudden entry of air and spillage of the contents. Reconstitution is done using normal saline. The vaccine has no preservative and thus the chances of bacterial contamination are high. Hence after reconstitution, the vaccine must be used within 4 hours and the left over vaccine must be discarded. Until those 4 hours, the vaccine has to be stored between 2- 8 degree centigrade. Oral polio vaccine contains stabilising agent magnesium sulphate and hence is stable after refrigeration. At state and district levels, the polio vaccine stocks must be stored at -200 degree centigrade. In clinics, it must be stored in the freezer. While transferring the vaccine to an outreach facility, the vaccine must be carried in prope r vaccine carriers loaded with ice packs to maintain temperature between 2- 80 degree centigrade. DPT vaccine has to be stored between 2-8 degree centigrade. The vaccine should never be frozen and any vial accidentally frozen must be discarded. Measles vaccine can either be frozen or stored in refrigerator compartment (Shah, 2007). Shelf life Shelf life varies from vaccine to vaccine. While some vaccines can be stored for several years, some others can be stored only for few months. For BCG, when stored under recommended temperatures in dark place, the shelf life is 24 months. Measles vaccine is supplied as freeze-dried and the shelf-life is 1-2 years or even more (Shah, 2007). Reconstitution While some vaccines like DPT and typhoid are ready-to-use vaccines, others like BCG, measles and hemophilus influenza vaccines are freeze dried need to be reconstituted with appropriate solutions. BCG vaccine has to be reconstituted with sodium chloride solution provided by the manufacturers. measles vaccine must be reconstituted with sterile water. The vaccine does not have any preservative and hence strict asepsis must be maintained while diluting and aspirating contents. Reconstituted vaccine must not be stored (Shah, 2007). Administration Site and mode of administration depends on the vaccine. For BCG, the vaccine can be given anywhere. However, the recommended site is the convex aspect of the left shoulder for the purpose of easy visualization of the scar. The most preferred site of injection is the site at which the deltoid inserts into the humerus. Injection at sites higher than this level on the arm are likely to develop keloid (CDC, 2009). Oral polio vaccine is administered orally. The principle behind oral vaccination is that high gut immunity levels prevent transmission of the wild or pathogenic polio viruses. DPT, Hemophilus influenza, inactivated polio , hepatitis A, hepatitis B, typhoid, and other such vaccine shave to be given intramuscularly and measles, mumps, rubella and varicella vaccines need to be given subcutaneously. The seroconversion rates of the oral polio vaccine are variable. For polio viruses type- 1, 2 and 3, the seroconversion rates after one dose of vaccine are 73%, 90% and 70%. Hence multiple doses are recommended to achive seroconversion of 90- 95 percent for all the 3 types of vaccine (Shah, 2007). Advantages of vaccination The advantages of vaccines are innumerous and hence all countries in the world have adopted vaccination in their public health policy. infact, vaccination is the best means of prevention of certain infectious disease, especially in new borns, infants and childrens who are vulnerable to certain diseases. In many cases, even if the vaccinee develops the disease for which he or she is vaccinated, the course of the disease is usally mild and recovery is fast. Attenuated vaccines trigger all phases of immune system and confer more stable immunity. Most live attenuated vaccines need no boosters. they are cheap and immunity develops quickly. The drugs are easy to transport. Some live vaccines like oral polio vaccine are easy to administer, can be given orally (Shah, 2007). Vaccines are useful not only to prevent disease, but also to eradicate the disease from the globe. Small pox, a deadly poxy disease was eradicated from the world only through vaccination. Currently, polio is on the verge of eradication because of oral polio vaccines and inactivated polio vaccine. However, there is ongoing debate about the continuing use of these vaccines with respect to community protection, as against individual protection. This debate arises in the wake of rising cases of paralytic poliomyelitis and vaccine derived polioviruses with oral polio vaccine (Thacker and Shendurnikar, 2003). Researchers are under the opinion that once poliovirus is eradicated, vaccine derived poliomyelitis will surge if oral polio vaccine administration is continued. To gaurd the development of this problem, inactivated polio vaccine which is administered in the form of injection is being introduced even in developing and underdeveloped countries (Shah, 2007). Bacillus Calmette Guerin vaccine or BCG vaccine is a vaccine against tuberculosis that was first developed in 1921 by Albert Calmette, a French microbiologist and Camille Guerin, a veterinary surgeon. Currently, BCG is the only vaccine against tuberculosis. The mechanism of immunity induced by this vaccine is cell-mediated immunity. The protective effect of this vaccine is not very good, especially for pulmonary tuberculosis ( Vaccines are a of immense economic value in the health care system and this is evident from the cost-benefit ratios (1:10) of poliomyelitis and measles (Mason et al, 2002). However, in developing and underdeveloped countries many people do not have the access to many vaccines due to lack of infrastructure, coordinated health policies and cost factor. Disadvantages of vaccination Vaccination is associated with many side effects. However the benefits of vaccination outweigh the disadvantages of vaccination. The safety of vaccines is always a disputed aspect, expecially by critics. However, vaccines are selected basically based on the necessity, safety and efficacy and they licensed only after undergoing 3 phases of trials. The first phase is on human volunteers for safety and tolerance aspects. The second trial tests immune response and safety in human volunteers and the third trial checks for field efficacy nd safety. After these trials, potency, purity and sterility tests are performed by both the manufacturer and the Drug controller of the country and only when these are satisfactory is the vaccine released into market. The efficacy of certain vaccines like BCG is doubted. While many studies have shown this vaccine to be efficacious, promoting its ised in Asian and African countries, the vaccine is not recommended for routine use in the United States because of the doubts casted on the benefits of the vaccine through some studies (CDC, 2009). Improper manufacturing of inactivated vaccines can result in infections due to intact pathogens. Booster doses are essential for inactivated vaccines because the antigens cannot reproduce and thus periodic reinforcement of immune response is mandatory (Ghaffar and Haqqi, 2010). Some previous studies published a causal relationship betwen measles-mumps-rubella vaccine and autism. However, the Institute of Medicine nd Immunisation Safety Review Committee (2004) investigated the relationship and rejected the causal relationship. Though vaccination against varicella is highly efficacious, many experts do not recommend the vaccine because naturally acquired immunity offers protection life long and prevents adult chicken more which is more severe than childhood chicken pox. Infact, some studies have shown that iniversant infant vaccination of chicken pox will cause a surge in chicken pox in adulthoos and during pregnancy. Based on these studies, experts are of the opinion that though chicken pox vaccination prevents economic loss due to loss of work time, health care costs may arise (Ferson, 1995). Some experts are of the opinion that the shift of surge in cases towards adulthood and oldage can be minimised by administering the vaccine in 2-3 doses, instead of single dose (Senterre, 2004). In some countries, a new combination vaccine consisting of vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella has been developed. While the argument as to whether universal vaccination against varicella continues, this co mbination vaccine is viewed from a critical point because of increased risk of febrile seizures. (Klein et al, 2010). Vaccine against Japanese Encephalitis, a zoonotic viral disease is widely used in countries in Asia. The vaccine is an inactivated vaccine developed from infected brain tissue of mouse. This vaccine is expensive and needs to be administered in 2-3 doses. Even booster dose is required for this vaccine. However the vaccine is associated with adverse reactions in significant number of people. In China and other regions like Korea, a cheap vaccine is used with strain SA 14- 14- 2. This vaccine is not associted with significant allergic reactions. Though the vaccine has been deemed effective, there are not many trials to support the safe and efficient use of this vaccine (Plesner, 2003). Some vaccines are very costly. For example, the vaccines against HPV virus, for the prevention of cervical cancer are around 100US dollars. The efficacy of the vaccine is 70 percent and hence screening for cervical cancer needs to be done even despite vaccination. The vaccine has to be given in 3 doses and many people cannot afford the price (Madrid-Madrina, 2009). Live attenuated vaccines are difficult to transport and have a risk of undergoing secondary mutation which can cause virulence. Also, these vaccines can cause disease in immunosuppressed persons, which makes them useless in those with immunocompromise. It is for these reasons that live oral polio virus vaccine, also known as the Sabin vaccine is being gradually replaced by inactivated polio vaccine or Salk vaccine. Almost all vaccines have some adverse effects. The most common adverse effect is soreness and redness at the site of injection. other adverse effects include fever, malaise, disconfort, allergic reaction or even neurological problems. The type of side effect depends on the vaccine. In BCG, adverse reaction in the form of papule and ulcer formation is an indication of successful vaccine administration. Soon after the vaccine is administered a wheal of atleast 5 mm develops which is an indication that the vaccine was administered in the most appropriate manner. After about 2-3 weeks, a small papule develops at the site of injection which gradually increases in size to about 4- 8mm by the end of 5-6 weeks. After about 6 weeks, the papule ruptures and an ulcer develops. This ulcer heals slowly and develops a scar after 6- 12 weeks. Other undesirable adverse reactions can occur in 1-10 percent cases. They are delayed healing of ulcer, lymphangitis, enlargement of ipsilateral cervical and axillary lymph nodes, abscess formation, osteomyelitis and rarely disseminated BCG vaccination. After DPT administration, side effects in noted in more than 40 percent of vaccinees. The most common adverse effect noted is pain and redness at the site of injection. The pain may be so severe that the child may not be able to move the limb and walk. Induration and swelling may also be present. Fever is also very common. It may last for 24- 72 hours and responds well to paracetamol. All children who have been administered this vaccine must receive paracetamol whether there is fever or not, for control of pain. Other systemic side effects include vomiting, anorexia, irritability, lassitude and excessive crying.The side effects are due to pertussis vaccine. Rarely, seizures can occur after administration of the vaccine. For vaccines like measles and varicella, rash and fever many occur (Shah, 2007). Some adverse effects can be nasty. For example, Swine flu vaccine is associated with Guillian barre syndrome, anaphylactic shock, vasculitis, paralysis and even death and this aspect is preventing many individuals from taking the vaccine.(Menzies et al, 2008). Pneumococcal vaccine can rarely can anaphylactic shock or even convulsions (Haber et al, 2009). Thus vaccination is associated with several risks and prior to administration of vaccines, the risks and benefits must be ascertained. Combination vaccines 2 ore more vaccines can be either given together at the same time. Currently, two or more vaccines are administered through the same injection. The combination depends on the vaccine and the manufacturers criteria. For several years, diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis were given as combination vaccine, known as DPT. Similarly measles, mumps and rubella are also available as combination vaccines. other recent combination vaccines include hepatitis A and B vaccines, DPT with hemophilus influenza and inactivated polio vaccine, etc. Combination vaccines are safe and reduce the number of injections that need to be given to the child. They do not decrease the efficacy of vaccination. They increase the compliance to vaccination (Shah, 2007). Novel vaccines Some novel vaccines have been developed and are under trial in the wake of debate between advantages and disadvantages of current vaccines available. Some of the important ones are DNA vaccines, immunodominant peptides and anti-idiotype molecules. of recent interest in the field of vaccination are plant-vaccines, which are erived from plants and can be administered orally or through oral mucosa (WHO, 2010). The vaccines derived thus are expected to be cheap with minimal side effects. research in plant vaccines is a result of revolution in proteomics and genomics, and greater understanding of the molecular basis of infectious diseases and advances in modern biotechnology. Edible plant vaccines employ a new strategy of combining plant biology with medical science. Research has shown that some variants of tobacco express hepatitis B surface antigen and streptomutans surface protein and infact the torch of research in plant-derived vaccines is taken from here. Novel vaccines have only su b-units of the pathogen and hence do not cause any virulence even in immunosuppressed patients. other than tobacco, other plants which are potential sources of vaccines are tomato, banana, alfalfa, legumes and certain cereals (Refer figure and tables below). Some research has pointed to the role of oral transgenic plant-derived vaccines in the prevention of diarrhoeal diseases by some pathogens like norovirus, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and cholera (Tacket, 2004). Plant-derived vaccines have several advantages. Besides lower cost of vaccination, another major advantages of the vaccines are that they are administered orally and hence the need for injection equipment is not needed. This decreases the risks associated with injections like unsafe injection, poor sterilization, misuse and reuse. The vaccines will need less rigorous formulations for manufacture and supply unlike injections. Another major advantage of plant-derived vaccines is heat stability which avoids the maintena nce of expensive cold-chains, and allows easy portability of the vaccine. Since most of the plant-derived vaccines are effective mucosally, it is an advantage because most infections are acquired through mucosa and mucosal immunity prevents entry of the pathogens into the host. Plant-derived vaccines can be given as combination vaccines. Plant derived vaccines can be given even for diseases not covered under regular vaccination like sexually transmitted diseases, dengue hookworm and HIV. The development of plant-derived vaccines is yet in cocoon stage due to return of investment doubts, uncertain licentures, limited human trials and lack of expertise (Arzten, 2002). Fig.1. Plant derived vaccine development strategy (Das, 2009). Table 1. Antigens produced in transgenic plants (Das, 2009) Protein Plant Hepatitis B surface antigen Rabies virus glycoprotein Norwalk virus capsid protein E.coliheat-labile enterotoxin B subunit Cholera toxin B subunit Mouse glutamate decarboxylase VP1 protein of foot and mouth disease virus Insulin Glycoprotein swine-transmissible gastroenteritis cornavirus Tobacco Tomato Tobacco Potato Potato, tobacco Potato Arabidopsis Potato Arabidopsis Table-2. Transient production of antigens in plants after infection with plant viruses expressing a recombinant gene (Das, 2009) Protein  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plant  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carrier Influenza antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     TMV Murine zona pellucida antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  TMV Rabies antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Spinach  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   AFMV HIV-1 antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  AFMV Mink enteritis virus antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Black eyed bean  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CPMV Colon cancer antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   TMV Table-3 Antibodies and antibody fragments produced in transgenic plants (Das, 2009) Antibody  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plant IgG (k)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Transition stage analog  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco IgM (ÃŽÂ »)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   NP(4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  acetyl hapten Single domain (dAb)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Substance P  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco Single chain Fv  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Phytochrome  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco Single chain Fv  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Artichoke mottled virus  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  coat protein Fab; IgG (k)     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Human creatin kinase  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arabidopsis IgG (k)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fungal cutinase  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco IgG (k) and SIgG/A  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   S. mutagens adhesin  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Tobacco hybrid Single chain Fv  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Abscisic acid  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco Single chain Fv  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nematode antigen  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco Single chain Fv  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ²-glucuronidase  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tobacco   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ²-1,4 endoglucanase  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Single chain  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Atrazin, Paraquat  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tobacco antibody fragment  Ã‚  Ã‚   IgG  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Glycoprotein B of  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Soybean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Herpes simplex virus  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion